Holly O’Connor
BA (Hons) Graphic Design
2018/19
What role does Graphic Design play in primary
education?
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Contents Page
2 – Contents Page
3 – List of Illustrations
4 – Introduction
5 – Main Text
16 – Conclusion
17 – 21 – Images
22 – Reference List
List of Illustrations
Figure
1 - Solve Problems Involving Money -
Mathsphere
http://www.mathsphere.co.uk/downloads/sample-worksheets/year-2-1-solve-money-problems.pdf
Figure
2 – People Who Help Us
https://www.twinkl.co.uk/twinkl-font
Figure
3 – Adding to Tens: A Spinner Game
https://www.teachitprimary.co.uk/resources/y1/number-and-place-value/number/adding-to-tens-a-spinner-game/27874
Figure
4 – 10 Up!
http://www.brainbox.co.uk/game/10-up
Introduction
This essay will
explore how graphic design can be effectively used in a primary education
setting. Looking at a number of teaching theories, perspectives and approaches
to teaching; specifically, within the Primary Classroom. Looking at how these
approaches to knowledge, learning and teaching can be applied to Graphic media and
these will be used to analyse, explicitly when it comes to resources in schools
and how much of the design relates to theories in order to implement and reinforce
children’s knowledge. The aim of this essay is to explore the role that graphic
design can have on creating constructivist materials and resources for the
classroom which will make for effective learning. Looking and analysing visual
examples as an important part of this. There are many opinions and theories
about the way children should be taught and how they learn, as Pritchard writes
in Ways of Learning ‘There is not a one-size-fits-all answer to the questions
‘How do children learn?’ and ‘How should teachers teach?’ (Pritchard, A 2005). Therefore,
the question is not how to, but why and which is the most effective, which can
also be applied to the development of visual learning materials. The main focus
throughout this exploration is on the theory of Constructivism as this lends
itself better to explore, discuss and analyse existing resources and how to
help understand what is already out there, what works well and how
constructivism is applied to this.
Main Text
Wray
and Lewis (1997) specify four key aspects of constructivist theory which was
pioneered by both Piaget and Vygotsky, those aspects being ‘Learning is a process
of interaction between what is known and what is to be learnt. Learning is a
social process. Learning is a situated process. Learning is a metacognitive
process.’ However, there are a number of different perspectives on what makes
the most effective learning, how children learn best and the different roles
and responsibilities of the teacher and child. Leaving constructivism for now
and looking at some contrasting theorists leads us to behaviourist theories,
including Pavlov, Skinner and Watson. Ideas such as ‘classical conditioning’
and ‘operant conditioning which on a whole, suggests that learning is a passive
activity from responding to environmental stimuli. Meaning it is essentially a
cognitivist view, (David L, 2014). On one hand the behaviourist view of Skinner
and Watson believes that learning happens through changes in the environment,
whereas Piaget and Vygotsky have a constructivist view that knowledge is
constructed by the learner and then develop their own understanding through
experience.
A different take on
learning, is the Montessori approach which Lillard discusses in Montessori: The Science Behind the Genius
that ‘Underlying Montessori education is the child as a motivated doer’ and the
role of the teacher is stated in The
Montessori Method that their role is limited to that of observer-helper of
the children. Montessori’s theories have some similar aspects to Piaget, one
main theme being the idea of children as active learners. (Lillard 2016). on
the other hand, a big difference is the emphasis on the role of the teacher, as
stated before Montessori believes the teacher is there to observe whereas
Piaget believes in teacher-based learning and instruction. One other area they
agree on is the importance of the environment, and how it should look and be
set up.
Another, possibly more contemporary theory to look at is that of Reggio
Emilia which mirrors views of constructivism and those of Piaget and Vygotsky
by suggesting that ‘children are capable of constructing their own learning’
(Gribble 2017). Although differences are implied through the social aspect of
Reggio Emilia’s approach, that children form an understanding of the world
through their interactions with others, whereas Piaget suggest it’s much more
individual. Seeing the differing approaches to teaching and how children learn,
constructivism is probably a useful lens through which to explore effective
teaching in terms of graphic design, as it focuses on the environment, context
and problem based learning.
Constructivism is referred to as a paradigm
and the differing approaches and ideas built upon these. Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview posits that
learning is an active, constructive process. The learner is an information
constructor; people actively construct or create their own subjective
representations of objective reality. (David, 2014). Constructivism is seen as
a paradigm as there are many different approaches and opinions about it and
what constructivism concerns and represents.
Piaget is seen as a pioneer of constructivism, taking a look at his
learning theory and the four main stages which include; sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational
and formal operational (Piaget 1972). The underlying idea is that teacher’s
role is to facilitate learning by providing a variety of experiences, which
‘discovery learning’ (Fosnot 1996) also comes into, which helps to encourage
new understandings. Vygotsky’s work explores social interaction, knowledgeable
others and looking at the zone of proximal development. When looking at Vygotsky
and Piaget’s views side by side one of the main ways in which they contrast is
the order of development and learning, Piaget believes that development
precedes learning, whereas Vygotsky felt that social learning precedes
development (David 2014). On the other hand, the similarities are discussed by
Fosnot that they both seem to have an overarching similar concept that
constructivism is creating new representations and models of reality as a human
meaning-making venture, with culturally developed tools and symbols to
encourage learning in the classroom environment (Fosnot 1996).
In Constructivism: Theory, Perspectives, and
Practice Fosnot writes about Piaget’s view of adaptation instead of
representation (Fosnot 1996) and how this stems from Biology and the adaptation
of animals and their characteristics and ways of behaving to their environments
around them, mirroring this to how children can learn and adapt in the
classroom and then apply what they have learnt to the real world. In Grennan’s
book, In Search of Understanding: The Case for a Constructivist Classroom, she
discusses the underlying aim and role of the teacher within the constructivist
theory, ‘the teacher searches for student’s understanding’, and then as a
result of this teachers then ‘create opportunities for students to refine and
revise those understandings’ through a range of actions (Grennan 1993).
The
development of constructivism, start by looking at behaviourist theories and
how constructivism has built upon these and advanced through differing
opinions, voices and stances on the topic. Kay C Wood says that ‘Piaget's
work provides the foundation on which constructionist theories are based’. Taking
his initial ideas and interpretation of constructivism refers back to genetics,
more specifically genetic epistemology or similarly evolutionary epistemology. Epistemology
is ‘the study of the origins or genesis of knowledge’. Within this concept,
Piaget believed that knowledge is formed from an individuals’ environment and
experiences and how ‘they have managed to evolve a fit or their physical
characteristics and their ways of behaving have so far proven viable in their
environment.’ (Fosnot 1996). Piaget also believes that intelligence is ‘the basic
mechanism of ensuring equilibrium in the relations between the person and the
environment.’. Within Piaget’s Stages of
Development Model, he discusses the ‘Preoperational Period’ where intelligence
is egocentric and intuitive, and the
‘Concrete operational stage’ where ‘Thinking becomes less egocentric
with increased awareness of external events, and involves concrete references.’
which are both most appropriate to
explore when looking at knowledge and learning within a Primary School
environment, especially so in the earlier years.
This
idea of developmental stages of learning is shown by Jaqueline Grennan In Search for Understanding: The case for Constructivist
classrooms, where she discusses the levels and depth of understanding and intelligence
throughout a child’s school life;
‘As human beings we experience various aspects
of the world, such as the beach, at different periods of development, and are
thus able to construct more complex understandings. The young child in may know
that the taste of sea water is unpleasant. As she grows, she might understand
that it tastes salty. As a teenager, she might understand the chemical concept
of salinity. At some point in her development, she might examine how salt
solutions conduct electricity’ (Grennan 1993).
Vygotsky built upon Piaget’s theory
by introducing a social element to constructivism, it is seen as one of the
foundations of constructivism. Introducing ideas such as social interaction,
more knowledgeable others and the zone of proximal development. The main
difference between these two theories is that ‘Piaget believes development
necessarily precedes learning whereas Vygotsky believes that social learning
precedes development’ (David L, 2014). This social aspect of Vygotsky’s theory
is discussed further in Constructivism: Theory, Perspectives, and Practice,
exploring the idea of the ‘classroom as a mini society and a community of
learns engaged with activity, discourse,
interpretation, justification and reflection.’ It’s important to see that
learning happens with the assistance of other people, which brings in
Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development which he describes in detail as ‘a
range of tasks that are too difficult for an individual to master alone, but
can be mastered with the assistance or guidance of adults or more skilled
peers’ (Vygotsky 1962). This theory can then be applied into the classroom in a
number of ways, an example of this is pairing more academic students with a
student who is maybe less capable, therefore they can help each other and
children may use different and more understandable language to one another
rather than the teacher’s explanation. Peer marking and peer evaluation is also
an important aspect which shows Vygotsky’s theory placed in classroom situations,
which shows how much social interaction there is in an educational environment.
Other advances on constructivism
consists of the discussion of radical constructivism from Ernst von Glaserfeld.
In his book Radical Constructivism: A way
of knowing and learning, he describes the paradigm of constructivism as ‘a
theory of knowing that provides a pragmatic approach to questions about
reality, truth, language and human understanding.’ Within his book he also
discusses behaviourist views and how he tends to pit his own ideas against
those of behaviourists, describing the behaviourist movement as ‘passé’ but
believes that ‘some of its central notions are still very much alive, both in
psychology and education.’ (Glaserfeld 1995). Constructivism is a theory based
on complexity models of evolution and development, (Fosnot 1996). The theory is
still constantly evolving and being built upon, especially with more
contemporary ideas, as Glaserfeld and many others have done with the basis of
Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s discussions and interpretations.
The role of the teacher, the extent to
which teachers should be a part of within the learning process is something
that differs across the theories and paradigms. Piaget believes and therefore,
discusses in his book that the role of the teacher, ‘is to facilitate learning by providing a variety of
experiences’ (Piaget 1972). Which coincides with Fosno’s idea that within
constructivist classroom ‘the teacher assumes
more of a facilitators role and learners take on more ownership of the ideas’
(Fosnot 1996). Which differs from Montessori’s idea of the role of the teacher,
where Montessori discusses the idea of the teacher as an observer, where
children dictated their own learning journey.
Furthermore,
Vygotsky discusses the role of the teacher in creating a more social classroom
environment in saying that ‘teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent children
develop with help from more skilful peers.’ Suggesting that children can learn
from one another. Firstly, in terms of learning from more knowledgeable others,
but also being able to explain ideas strengthens understanding. Also less
academic children may see and understand things differently which may open the
eyes to more academic children to think about things differently. Especially
when the teacher allows and creates opportunities for this to happen. Glaserfeld also picks up in
his book that ‘The task of the educator is not to dispense knowledge but to
provide students with opportunities and incentives to build it up,’ (Glaserfeld
1995), which reinforces this idea of the teacher as an opportunist.
Katz (1985) stressed that emphasis
on performance usually results in little recall of concepts over time, while
emphasis on learning generates long-term understanding. Similarly, Grennan also
discusses that ‘Teachers who value the child’s present conceptions rather than
measure how far away they are from other conceptions, help students construct
individual understandings important to them’, (Grennan 1993). Which also links
to Piaget’s view of idiosyncrasy within children and that an analysis of meaning always leads to
individual experiences. Therefore, Vygotsky’s social learning theory brings
children together so that they share these experiences and can as discussed
previously, learn from one another, but it’s up to the teacher to provide these
opportunities.
Grennan also discusses the idea of pupils and children having
suppositions, which are formed from their previous experiences and environment
which is part of Piaget’s genetic epistemology. The role of the teacher in this
aspect is to adapt curriculum tasks to address these suppositions, therefore
what children are learning is relatable and something they are already aware of
so that they can build up on their knowledge, which again refers back to
Piaget’s statement of adaptation instead
of representation sharing and teaching knowledge in a way that relates to
children’s experiences and isn’t necessarily a copy of reality. The teacher
also needs to show genuine interest in these suppositions and knowing more
about what they think and why, seeking to understand student’s points of view. From
doing this allows students to ‘follow trails of interest’ as discussed by
Fosnot (1996), if students are actually interested and feel acknowledged they
are more likely to be engaged and then perform better and maintain more
knowledge, even outside of the context of the classroom.
The idea of nonlinear learning is also an important part of
constructivism, as it allows students to control and construct their own
learning when there isn’t specific targets or topics to cover. ‘Knowledge is
not linear’ (Fosnot 1996), each point of learning is a temporary intellectual
stop along the path of ever increasing knowledge. As Grennan discusses,
‘constructivist teachers allow student responses to drive lessons, shift
instructional strategies and alter content’ (Grennan 1994). Therefore, the
teacher plays a role in allowing children to take charge of their own learning
and giving them the resources which will guide and help them to do so the
teacher’s responsibility is to create educational environments that permit
students to assume the responsibility that is rightfully and naturally theirs.
Which also allows children to create and select their own unique problem-
solving approaches and then use these to construct new understandings (Fosnot
1996). Pritchard also discusses the importance of the teacher’s own
understandings and experiences especially of processes of learning and how it
is ‘essential for those who intend to develop activities and resources that
will have the potential to lead to effective learning taking place in
classrooms’ (Pritchard 2005).
Learning materials within the classroom, in terms of constructivism is
mainly to bring context into the classroom. It brings Piaget’s ideas that the
environment influences and is the main aspect of knowledge and learning,
‘knowledge is constructed based on personal experiences’ (Fosnot 1996).
Therefore, the role of resources and in turn the role of the teacher is to give
pupils and children the opportunity to put their experiences in perspective to
help them further their knowledge and understanding in specific areas. Which
also formalises learning experiences, meaning that children will get and learn
more from them, meaning they are much more enriching.
Another aspect is that of sociability and the role of resources in terms
of bringing pupils together and also in terms of Vygotsky’s social development
theory where he suggests that children firstly develop and learn at a social
level before the individual level of understanding (David 2014). This idea of
social learning is also discussed by Clements
and Battista (2009) where they state that ‘Learning is a social process in which
children grow into the intellectual life of those around them’, therefore
resources need to be inclusive and are seen as an anchor to allow for
discussion sand group activities, also any games should be more than one player
so that pupils can interact with one another to help with both their social
knowledge and individual learning journey. Within this report they also discuss
the role and negative impact of paper and pencil exercise saying that they can
cause ‘social isolation’, mechanical repetition and a form of dependence on the
teacher to know if the answer is correct. Therefore, these kind of activities
need replacing with two different kinds of activities be that games or
situations in everyday living.
One resource from Mathsphere shown
in Figure 1 can be used as an example of how learning can be put into context
within the classroom, whilst at the same time children are learning about
daily, real life activities. Teaching children about money, with illustrations
showing this in context. In terms of Piaget’s ideas he probably would suggest
to take it one step further to use actual money, rather than working from a 2D
worksheet. As when Piaget’s and Montessori’s ideas are compared, one thing they
had in common was the belief that if you were to read
a class a book about farm animals they both agree that you should then take
your class to a farm so they can see, smell, and touch these animals. This idea
is also discussed by Fosnot the idea that constructivist teachers use raw data
and primary sources, along with manipulative, interactive and physical
materials.
When analysing and looking at the
disadvantages of this resource and where it doesn’t fit with constructivist
approaches, is the firstly the social isolation aspect. The resource doesn’t
really allow for group work or discussions and could be viewed as repetitive
and unengaging. Another aspect which is missing is imagination and freedom of
thinking, as the worksheet really only allows for one way of working and only
the correct answers. This way of working is discussed by Grennan where she
states that constructivism should ’encourage pupils to think’ (Grennan, 1994)
rather than to just be able to compute with paper and pencil. As this written
aspect interfered with pupil’s freedom to think and to remember addition and
subtraction of numbers. This resource, similar to figure 2, introduces
knowledge which children are already aware of and are most likely to have seen
and responded to outside the classroom, it brings it into a mathematical
learning context which they are therefore more likely to engage with. Children potentially learn more when learning in
context rather than in the classroom, therefore context needs to be brought
into the classroom for learning to be more beneficial and create long term
understanding.
Beginning
to look at constructivism and design within a specific subject Figure 2 looks
at KS1 Maths Resources from Twinkl, which is an online educational publishing house, producing teaching and educational materials. Founder of Twinkl
Jonathan Seaton discusses in a recent article that Twinkl is ‘empowering a new
way of teaching’ (Insider Media 2018). The resources recognise that children of
the future need to have the ability to problem solve, think creatively and
pattern spot.
Constructivist
theories would suggest that these resources are effective as they have a main
focus on jobs and careers that children will be able to identify with and
recognise. Which is an aspect that Grennan discusses in her book that children
don’t usually connect the information they receive in school to interpretations
of the world around them, (Grennan 1993), however this piece shows how
children’s current knowledge can be used to make sense of new knowledge, which
is essentially the underlying idea of constructivism that ‘Knowledge is
constructed based on personal experiences and hypotheses of the environment
(David 2014).
A criticism of the
piece is that it doesn’t encourage social interaction and learning, it is
designed more for individual learning, which contradicts Vygotsky’s social
learning theory and the idea of the ‘classroom as a mini society and a
community of learners engaged with activity’ (Fosnot 1996). This style of
independent learning fits more into the Montessori teaching method that caters
for children by ‘adapting the curriculum to the taste of individual children’
(Hunt 1964). The sharing of and cooperation which is important to learning
comes from Paul Cobb’s idea of ‘taken as shared’ and the fact that ‘the mutual
compatibility in our use of words and language is the result of social
interaction’ (Fosnot 1996), therefore implying that children help each other
learn through sharing their different experiences.
Figure 2 also is an
example of the teacher trying to grasp how and what the children in the class
already understand, and how ‘learners need enough previous knowledge and
understanding to enable them to learn new things’ it’s an example of the
teacher using resources as a tool to ‘help make links with new and previous knowledge
explicitly’ (Prichard 2005).
Figure 3 is a more interactive
resource which can be used both independently and in pairs. It is also a lot
more interactive and moves away from using just paper and pencil, it creates a
different learning experience. It is also an activity that can be done without
the teacher’s involvement which fits with Piaget’s idea of the role of the
teacher as a facilitator, the children being taught the basic knowledge, then
the pupils are then putting what they have learnt into practise with materials
that the teachers as given to them and created. Which follows Grennan’s idea
that was discussed earlier, where it’s said that teachers ‘create
opportunities for students to refine and revise those understandings’ through a
range of actions (Grennan 1994). Which also relates to the ideas of constructivism discussed in Catherine
Fosnot’s book ‘Constructivism:
Theory, Perspectives, and Practice’ that new ideas and representations of
reality are constructed with ‘culturally developed tools and symbols’. Giving
children the tools they need to figure out reality and the knowledge
themselves.
What figure 3 fails to do is put learning into
context as well as Figure 1 and 3, as it only uses numbers. Clements suggests
that students care more about real-life situations
and think much harder about these questions than about those in workbooks. As learning in context as a way of learning, fits
alongside Grennan’s words that ‘constructivism is a nonlinear learning process’
and that children can ‘make connections’, between the different parts of theory
and knowledge that they have learnt, which is a much more realistic picture of
how the world works, and how they can take their learning outside of the
classroom as discussed in ‘Building Skills for Effective Primary Teaching, that
‘Context can impact on learning too, a child might be able to do something
within the classroom but may not see how to use this learning in a different
context or environment.’ Which also coincides with Piaget’s theory of
‘discovery learning’ and how ‘knowledge is constructed when children create
products or artefacts’ (Piaget 1972).
Figure
3 shows a card game which helps children to learn different Maths concepts. Designed
by the Green Board Games. The game is
said to be ‘innovative and imaginative, and designed to bring people together,
increase knowledge, aid learning and also be great fun.’ All of those ideas are
all important aspects of constructivism. Beginning to look at the idea of how
games can help children to learn which is discussed by Clements and Battista
(2009) in their report of Constructivist
Learning and Teaching. Within this report they consider that games can be
used as a fundamental form of instruction, they also allow for students to
discuss or agree and disagree with one another. They also state their opinion
that games are proven to be effective within the classroom, especially when
older, maybe more old fashioned well known games are manipulated or modified,
for example a version of Old Maid where children try to make a sum of ten with
two cards. These ideas coincide with Prichard’s discussion (in Ways of Learning)
where he suggests ‘when learning is made up of authentic tasks, there is a
greater possibility of engagement’ (Pritchard, 2005), which also fits together
with the ideals of the resources discussed in Figure 1 and 2 of tactile and
active forms of learning. An important aspect of Constructivism is that
learning comes from real life situations and children’s environment around
them, more specifically and enriching outside of the classroom activities such
as taking attendance, voting, collecting money and writing letters.
Figure
3 is also an example discussed previously in the essay from Glaserfeld about
how the teacher’s role is to provide children with opportunities and incentives
to build up their knowledge and learning skills. Breaking down ideas further
discussed in Constructivist Learning and Teaching, firstly Clements suggests
that ‘Paper and pencil exercises cause social isolation, mechanical repetition
and dependence on the teacher’ (Clements 2009) and therefore ideas and tasks
need to be put in place to stop this from happening, therefore one idea is to
‘replace these tasks with games and situations in daily living’. Which is also
suggested in Grennan’s book, where she writes that ‘Constructivist teachers use
raw data and primary sources, along with manipulative, interactive and physical
materials’ (Grennan 1994). The use of engaging and real materials, gives way to
children understanding and putting what they are learning into context, so that
they’re knowledge doesn’t just stop when they leave the classroom.
The
design of Figure 3 also allows pupils to interact with one another, which means
that Vygotsky’s ideas and views of constructivism are implemented and embedded
within the game and resource itself. This social aspect of learning is also
discussed in Clements and Battista’s report, where they state that the role of
a constructivist classroom and teacher within it is to ‘encourage pupils to
exchange points of view,
rather
than reinforce correct answers and correct wrong ones’, meaning that pupils can
learn from each other and share new ideas and experiences as Piaget’s ideas
suggest that every pupil is individual and have very distinctive and specific
ways of perceiving and conceiving (Fosnot 1996).
In Ways of Learning, Pritchard writes that ‘Effective
learning is learning which is lasting and capable of being put to use in new
and differing situations.’ (Pritchard, 2005). In relation to this Grennan
discusses the emphasis on learning as helping to create long term understanding
‘emphasis on performance usually results in little recall of concepts over
time, while emphasis on learning generates long-term understanding’ (Grennan
1994). Therefore, using existing concepts and contextual understandings makes
it easier and more effective for children to understand and learn from.
In Piaget’s terms; constructivism is ultimately about children
constructing new knowledge from building on current knowledge. Therefore, effective
resources engage children by encouraging them to remember their existing
knowledge and placing it into context with new knowledge, combining the two
together to produce a better understanding. The resources which were analysed
all show the role of the teacher in terms of being a facilitator and providing
the tools and symbols for children to most efficiently learn from, some being
seen as more effective than others. Those that used illustrations an imagery makes
it easier for children to situate the knowledge into a context that they
understand as it’s easier for them to see something visual rather than purely
written.
Conclusion
In
conclusion the most effective design for learning materials in a primary classroom(
in terms of constructivism) consists of an element of group learning, allowing
for discussions, social learning and which in turn leads to enquiry, curiosity,
and dialogue with the both the teacher and most importantly between one
another. Another important aspect of effective learning materials is the right
combination of context and physicality. Placing learning within contexts that children
will understand, or in better terms as Fosnot describes, ‘valuing children’s
present conceptions and suppositions’ (Fosnot 1996). These effective learning
materials also encourage children to think a lot more than just writing correct
answers using paper and pencil. As in constructivist teaching, there is a big
focus on knowing more about what children think and why and also the importance
of understanding children’s points of view. As Fosnot discusses that, ‘A constructivist framework challenges teachers to create environments in which they and their students are encouraged to think and explore’,
(Fosnot 1996) and resources have an important part to play within this
framework.
Moreover, graphic design can play a significant role on the
effectiveness of the delivery of teaching in a primary school environment, by
having an impact on the creation of resources. Firstly, making them innovative
and engaging, helping to communicate to the right audience and playing on
pupil’s own experiences and suppositions all which constructivism allows and
breaks down to. Secondly, creating resources which encourage interaction and
group activities, part of this can be done by initiating discussions through
games or activities. Graphic design can therefore ultimately help within
Piaget’s main point of constructivism of discovery
learning, ‘providing opportunities for learners to explore and experiment, thereby
encouraging new understandings’.
Figure
1 – Solve Problems Involving Money
Figure 2 – People Who Help Us
Figure 3 – Adding to Tens: A Spinner Game
Figure 4 – 10 Up!
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